Chronic L-Carnitine Supplementation on Exercise Performance, Blood Lactate, and Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress in Resistance-Trained Males
Subject Areas : Sport Nutrition
1 - Exercise Physiology Research Center, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
Keywords: Antioxidant, L-Carnitine, lactate, oxidative stress, resistance training,
Abstract :
Background: The purpose of the present study is to investigate the effect of Chronic L-Carnitine Supplementation on Exercise Performance, Blood Lactate, and Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress in Resistance-Trained Males Materials and Methods: We examined 35 resistance-trained (1y) male participants (25±2y, 79.8±8.9 kg, 16.1±5.53% body fat) for 9-wk of L-carnitine supplementation in conjunction with resistance training on exercise performance, blood lactate, and exercise-induced oxidative stress. Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind treatment of a (1) no intervention, no supplement Control (CON, n=12), (2) maltodextrose Placebo (PLA, 2 g/d, n=11) or (3) L-carnitine (LCR, 2 g/d, n=12). Exercise performance, post-exercise blood lactate (BL) and oxidative stress markers were analyzed at weeks 3, 6, and 9. The PLA and LCR groups followed a specific resistance training program (4 d/w, upper body/lower body split) for a 9-wk. Data were analyzed by GLM and presented as mean (SD) or change (95% CI). Primary outcomes were total lifting volume for the bench (BP) and leg press (LP). Results: The results a significant increase in BP lifting volume at wk-6 (139 kg, 95% CI 49.1, 230) and wk-9 (238 kg, 95% CI 132, 343) for LCR. Similar results were observed for LP. We also observed a significant increase in Wingate mean power (63.4 W, 95% CI 30.5, 96.3) and peak power (239 W/kg, 95% CI 104, 374) at wk-9 for LCR as well as a significant reduction in post-exercise BL levels and oxidative stress responses. No differences were observed in body composition. Conclusion: These findings indicate that LCR supplementation improves exercise performance and attenuates the blood lactate and oxidative stress response to resistance training.
References:
1. Karlic H, Lohninger A. Supplementation of L-carnitine in athletes: does it make sense? Nutrition. 2004 Jul-Aug;20(7-8):709-15. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.003. PMID: 15212755.
2. Wall BT, Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Marimuthu K, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Chronic oral ingestion of L-carnitine and carbohydrate increases muscle carnitine content and alters muscle fuel metabolism during exercise in humans. J Physiol. 2011 Feb 15;589(Pt 4):963-73. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.201343. Epub 2011 Jan 4. PMID: 21224234; PMCID: PMC3060373.
3. Sahlin K. Metabolic factors in fatigue. Sports Med. 1992 Feb;13(2):99-107. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199213020-00005. PMID: 1561513.
4. Jacobs PL, Goldstein ER, Blackburn W, Orem I, Hughes JJ. Glycine propionyl-L-carnitine produces enhanced anaerobic work capacity with reduced lactate accumulation in resistance trained males. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009 Apr 2;6:9. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-9. PMID: 19341458; PMCID: PMC2674410.
5. Mitchell JB, Rogers MM, Basset JT, Hubing KA. Fatigue during high-intensity endurance exercise: the interaction between metabolic factors and thermal stress. J Strength Cond Res. 2014 Jul;28(7):1906-14. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000319. PMID: 24276293.
6. Sharma S, Black SM. CARNITINE HOMEOSTASIS, MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. Drug Discov Today Dis Mech. 2009;6(1-4):e31-e39. doi: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2009.02.001. PMID: 20648231; PMCID: PMC2905823.
7. Barnett C, Costill DL, Vukovich MD, Cole KJ, Goodpaster BH, Trappe SW, Fink WJ. Effect of L-carnitine supplementation on muscle and blood carnitine content and lactate accumulation during high-intensity sprint cycling. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994 Sep;4(3):280-8. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.4.3.280. PMID: 7987362.
8. Lee BJ, Lin JS, Lin YC, Lin PT. Antiinflammatory effects of L-carnitine supplementation (1000 mg/d) in coronary artery disease patients. Nutrition. 2015 Mar;31(3):475-9. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2014.10.001. Epub 2014 Oct 16. PMID: 25701337.
9. Gleeson M. Immune function in sport and exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2007 Aug;103(2):693-9. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007. Epub 2007 Feb 15. PMID: 17303714.
10. Starkie RL, Rolland J, Angus DJ, Anderson MJ, Febbraio MA. Circulating monocytes are not the source of elevations in plasma IL-6 and TNF-alpha levels after prolonged running. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2001 Apr;280(4):C769-74. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.2001.280.4.C769. PMID: 11245592.
11. McBride JM, Kraemer WJ, Triplett-McBride T, Sebastianelli W. Effect of resistance exercise on free radical production. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998 Jan;30(1):67-72. doi: 10.1097/00005768-199801000-00010. PMID: 9475646.
12. Gleeson M, McFarlin B, Flynn M. Exercise and Toll-like receptors. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2006; 12:34-53. PMID: 17201071.
13. Atalay Guzel N, Erikoglu Orer G, Sezen Bircan F, Coskun Cevher S. Effects of acute L-carnitine supplementation on nitric oxide production and oxidative stress after exhaustive exercise in young soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2015 Jan-Feb;55(1-2):9-15. Epub 2014 Oct 7. PMID: 25289711.
14. Sachan DS, Hongu N, Johnsen M. Decreasing oxidative stress with choline and carnitine in women. J Am Coll Nutr. 2005 Jun;24(3):172-6. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2005.10719462. PMID: 15930482.
15. Volek JS, Kraemer WJ, Rubin MR, Gómez AL, Ratamess NA, Gaynor P. L-Carnitine L-tartrate supplementation favorably affects markers of recovery from exercise stress. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Feb;282(2):E474-82. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00277.2001. PMID: 11788381.
16. Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, French DN, Rubin MR, Sharman MJ, Gómez AL, Ratamess NA, Newton RU, Jemiolo B, Craig BW, Häkkinen K. The effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance exercise and recovery. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Aug;17(3):455-62. doi: 10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017<0455: teolls>2.0.co;2. PMID: 12930169.
17. Broad EM, Maughan RJ, Galloway SD. Carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism during exercise after oral carnitine supplementation in humans. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008 Dec;18(6):567-84. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.18.6.567. PMID: 19164828.
18. Spiering BA, Kraemer WJ, Hatfield DL, Vingren JL, Fragala MS, Ho JY, Thomas GA, Häkkinen K, Volek JS. Effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on muscle oxygenation responses to resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2008 Jul;22(4):1130-5. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31817d48d9. PMID: 18545197.
19. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Carey MF, Hayes A. The effect of whey isolate and resistance training on strength, body composition, and plasma glutamine. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006 Oct;16(5):494-509. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.5.494. PMID: 17240782.
20. Jagim, A.R., Oliver, J.M., Sanchez, A. et al. A buffered form of creatine does not promote greater changes in muscle creatine content, body composition, or training adaptations than creatine monohydrate. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 9, 43 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-9-43
21. Ferguson B. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription 9th Ed. 2014. J Can Chiropr Assoc. 2014 Sep;58(3):328. PMCID: PMC4139760.
22. Kraemer WJ, Spiering BA, Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Sharman MJ, Rubin MR, French DN, Silvestre R, Hatfield DL, Van Heest JL, Vingren JL, Judelson DA, Deschenes MR, Maresh CM. Androgenic responses to resistance exercise: effects of feeding and L-carnitine. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006 Jul;38(7):1288-96. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000227314.85728.35. Erratum in: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006 Oct;38(10):1861. PMID: 16826026.
23. Schmitz SM, Hofheins JE, Lemieux R. Nine weeks of supplementation with a multi-nutrient product augments gains in lean mass, strength, and muscular performance in resistance trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010 Dec 16;7:40. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-40. PMID: 21162744; PMCID: PMC3016253.
24. Erel O. A novel automated direct measurement method for total antioxidant capacity using a new generation, more stable ABTS radical cation. Clin Biochem. 2004 Apr;37(4):277-85. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2003.11.015. PMID: 15003729.
25. Vassalle C, Lubrano V, L'Abbate A, Clerico A. Determination of nitrite plus nitrate and malondialdehyde in human plasma: analytical performance and the effect of smoking and exercise. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2002 Aug;40(8):802-9. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2002.139. PMID: 12392309.
26. Bulucu F, Vural A, Aydin A, Sayal A. Oxidative stress status in adults with nephrotic syndrome. Clin Nephrol. 2000 Mar;53(3):169-73. PMID: 10749294.
27. Berzosa C, Cebrián I, Fuentes-Broto L, Gómez-Trullén E, Piedrafita E, Martínez-Ballarín E, López-Pingarrón L, Reiter RJ, García JJ. Acute exercise increases plasma total antioxidant status and antioxidant enzyme activities in untrained men. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2011; 2011:540458. doi: 10.1155/2011/540458. Epub 2011 Mar 9. PMID: 21436993; PMCID: PMC3062968.
28. Aebi H. Catalase in vitro. Methods Enzymol. 1984; 105:121-6. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(84)05016-3. PMID: 6727660.
29. Arican O, Aral M, Sasmaz S, Ciragil P. Serum levels of TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IL-17, and IL-18 in patients with active psoriasis and correlation with disease severity. Mediators Inflamm. 2005 Oct 24;2005(5):273-9. doi: 10.1155/MI.2005.273. PMID: 16258194; PMCID: PMC1533889.
30. Vecchiet L, Di Lisa F, Pieralisi G, Ripari P, Menabò R, Giamberardino MA, Siliprandi N. Influence of L-carnitine administration on maximal physical exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1990;61(5-6):486-90. doi: 10.1007/BF00236072. PMID: 2127744.
31. Siliprandi N, Di Lisa F, Pieralisi G, Ripari P, Maccari F, Menabo R, Giamberardino MA, Vecchiet L. Metabolic changes induced by maximal exercise in human subjects following L-carnitine administration. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990 Apr 23;1034(1):17-21. doi: 10.1016/0304-4165(90)90147-o. PMID: 2328258.
32. Constantin-Teodosiu D, Carlin JI, Cederblad G, Harris RC, Hultman E. Acetyl group accumulation and pyruvate dehydrogenase activity in human muscle during incremental exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1991 Dec;143(4):367-72. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716. 1991.tb09247. x. PMID: 1815472.
33. Schooneman MG, Vaz FM, Houten SM, Soeters MR. Acylcarnitines: reflecting or inflicting insulin resistance? Diabetes. 2013 Jan;62(1):1-8. doi: 10.2337/db12-0466. PMID: 23258903; PMCID: PMC3526046.
34. Gönen MS, Kısakol G, Güngör K, and Kaya ODA. The Effect of L-Carnitine Treatment on Lactic Acid Levels in Normal Subjects and Patients with IGT. Turkish Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 1: 13-16, 2005. https://www.turkjem.org/current-issue/the-effect-of-l-carnitine-treatment-on-lactic-acid-levels-in-normal-subjects-and-patients-with-igt-14706
35. Stumpf DA, Parker WD Jr, Angelini C. Carnitine deficiency, organic acidemias, and Reye's syndrome. Neurology. 1985 Jul;35(7):1041-5. doi: 10.1212/wnl.35.7.1041. PMID: 3892364.
36. Williamson JR, Arrigoni-Martelli E. The roles of glucose-induced metabolic hypoxia and imbalances in carnitine metabolism in mediating diabetes-induced vascular dysfunction. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1992;12(5-6):247-52. PMID: 1301405.
37. Bloomer RJ, Tschume LC, Smith WA. Glycine propionyl-L-carnitine modulates lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide in human subjects. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2009 May;79(3):131-41. doi: 10.1024/0300-9831.79.3.131. PMID: 20209464.
38. Lee BJ, Lin JS, Lin YC, Lin PT. Effects of L-carnitine supplementation on oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes activities in patients with coronary artery disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Nutr J. 2014 Aug 4;13:79. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-13-79. PMID: 25092108; PMCID: PMC4125592.
39. Síktar E, Ekinci D, Síktar E, Beydemir S, Gülçin I, Günay M. Protective role of L-carnitine supplementation against exhaustive exercise induced oxidative stress in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2011 Oct 15;668(3):407-13. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.07.032. Epub 2011 Aug 5. PMID: 21839078.
40. Hakim J. Formes réactives de l'oxygène et inflammation [Reactive oxygen species and inflammation]. C R Seances Soc Biol Fil. 1993;187(3):286-95. French. PMID: 8019908.
41. Morgan MJ, Liu ZG. Crosstalk of reactive oxygen species and NF-κB signaling. Cell Res. 2011 Jan;21(1):103-15. doi: 10.1038/cr.2010.178. Epub 2010 Dec 28. PMID: 21187859; PMCID: PMC3193400.
42. Koc A, Ozkan T, Karabay AZ, Sunguroglu A, Aktan F. Effect of L-carnitine on the synthesis of nitric oxide in RAW 264·7 murine macrophage cell line. Cell Biochem Funct. 2011 Dec;29(8):679-85. doi: 10.1002/cbf.1807. Epub 2011 Oct 19. PMID: 22012571.
43. Setia S, Sanyal SN. Nuclear factor kappa B: a pro-inflammatory, transcription factor-mediated signalling pathway in lung carcinogenesis and its inhibition by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2012;31(1):27-37. doi: 10.1615/jenvironpatholtoxicoloncol. v31.i1.40. PMID: 22591282.
44. Cuevas MJ, Almar M, García-Glez JC, García-López D, De Paz JA, Alvear-Ordenes I, González-Gallego J. Changes in oxidative stress markers and NF-kappaB activation induced by sprint exercise. Free Radic Res. 2005 Apr;39(4):431-9. doi: 10.1080/10715760500072149. PMID: 16028368.
45. García-López D, Cuevas MJ, Almar M, Lima E, De Paz JA, González-Gallego J. Effects of eccentric exercise on NF-kappaB activation in blood mononuclear cells. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007 Apr;39(4):653-64. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31802f04f6. PMID: 17414803.
46. Vider J, Laaksonen DE, Kilk A, Atalay M, Lehtmaa J, Zilmer M, Sen CK. Physical exercise induces activation of NF-kappaB in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2001 Dec;3(6):1131-7. doi: 10.1089/152308601317203639. PMID: 11813986.
47. Birben E, Sahiner UM, Sackesen C, Erzurum S, Kalayci O. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense. World Allergy Organ J. 2012 Jan;5(1):9-19. doi: 10.1097/WOX.0b013e3182439613. Epub 2012 Jan 13. PMID: 23268465; PMCID: PMC3488923.
48. Conner EM, Grisham MB. Inflammation, free radicals, and antioxidants. Nutrition. 1996 Apr;12(4):274-7. doi: 10.1016/s0899-9007(96)00000-8. PMID: 8862535.
49. Farruggia C, Kim MB, Bae M, Lee Y, Pham TX, Yang Y, Han MJ, Park YK, Lee JY. Astaxanthin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in macrophages in NRF2-dependent and independent manners. J Nutr Biochem. 2018 Dec;62:202-209. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.09.005. Epub 2018 Sep 19. PMID: 30308382.
50. Kurutas EB, Cetinkaya A, Bulbuloglu E, Kantarceken B. Effects of antioxidant therapy on leukocyte myeloperoxidase and Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase and plasma malondialdehyde levels in experimental colitis. Mediators Inflamm. 2005 Dec 14;2005(6):390-4. doi: 10.1155/MI.2005.390. PMID: 16489261; PMCID: PMC1533903.
1. Karlic H, Lohninger A. Supplementation of L-carnitine in athletes: does it make sense? Nutrition. 2004 Jul-Aug;20(7-8):709-15. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.003. PMID: 15212755.
2. Wall BT, Stephens FB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Marimuthu K, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Chronic oral ingestion of L-carnitine and carbohydrate increases muscle carnitine content and alters muscle fuel metabolism during exercise in humans. J Physiol. 2011 Feb 15;589(Pt 4):963-73. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.201343. Epub 2011 Jan 4. PMID: 21224234; PMCID: PMC3060373.
3. Sahlin K. Metabolic factors in fatigue. Sports Med. 1992 Feb;13(2):99-107. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199213020-00005. PMID: 1561513.
4. Jacobs PL, Goldstein ER, Blackburn W, Orem I, Hughes JJ. Glycine propionyl-L-carnitine produces enhanced anaerobic work capacity with reduced lactate accumulation in resistance trained males. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009 Apr 2;6:9. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-9. PMID: 19341458; PMCID: PMC2674410.
5. Mitchell JB, Rogers MM, Basset JT, Hubing KA. Fatigue during high-intensity endurance exercise: the interaction between metabolic factors and thermal stress. J Strength Cond Res. 2014 Jul;28(7):1906-14. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000319. PMID: 24276293.
6. Sharma S, Black SM. CARNITINE HOMEOSTASIS, MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. Drug Discov Today Dis Mech. 2009;6(1-4):e31-e39. doi: 10.1016/j.ddmec.2009.02.001. PMID: 20648231; PMCID: PMC2905823.
7. Barnett C, Costill DL, Vukovich MD, Cole KJ, Goodpaster BH, Trappe SW, Fink WJ. Effect of L-carnitine supplementation on muscle and blood carnitine content and lactate accumulation during high-intensity sprint cycling. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994 Sep;4(3):280-8. doi: 10.1123/ijsn.4.3.280. PMID: 7987362.
8. Lee BJ, Lin JS, Lin YC, Lin PT. Antiinflammatory effects of L-carnitine supplementation (1000 mg/d) in coronary artery disease patients. Nutrition. 2015 Mar;31(3):475-9. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2014.10.001. Epub 2014 Oct 16. PMID: 25701337.
9. Gleeson M. Immune function in sport and exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2007 Aug;103(2):693-9. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007. Epub 2007 Feb 15. PMID: 17303714.
10. Starkie RL, Rolland J, Angus DJ, Anderson MJ, Febbraio MA. Circulating monocytes are not the source of elevations in plasma IL-6 and TNF-alpha levels after prolonged running. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2001 Apr;280(4):C769-74. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.2001.280.4.C769. PMID: 11245592.
11. McBride JM, Kraemer WJ, Triplett-McBride T, Sebastianelli W. Effect of resistance exercise on free radical production. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998 Jan;30(1):67-72. doi: 10.1097/00005768-199801000-00010. PMID: 9475646.
12. Gleeson M, McFarlin B, Flynn M. Exercise and Toll-like receptors. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2006; 12:34-53. PMID: 17201071.
13. Atalay Guzel N, Erikoglu Orer G, Sezen Bircan F, Coskun Cevher S. Effects of acute L-carnitine supplementation on nitric oxide production and oxidative stress after exhaustive exercise in young soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2015 Jan-Feb;55(1-2):9-15. Epub 2014 Oct 7. PMID: 25289711.
14. Sachan DS, Hongu N, Johnsen M. Decreasing oxidative stress with choline and carnitine in women. J Am Coll Nutr. 2005 Jun;24(3):172-6. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2005.10719462. PMID: 15930482.
15. Volek JS, Kraemer WJ, Rubin MR, Gómez AL, Ratamess NA, Gaynor P. L-Carnitine L-tartrate supplementation favorably affects markers of recovery from exercise stress. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Feb;282(2):E474-82. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00277.2001. PMID: 11788381.
16. Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, French DN, Rubin MR, Sharman MJ, Gómez AL, Ratamess NA, Newton RU, Jemiolo B, Craig BW, Häkkinen K. The effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance exercise and recovery. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Aug;17(3):455-62. doi: 10.1519/1533-4287(2003)017<0455: teolls>2.0.co;2. PMID: 12930169.
17. Broad EM, Maughan RJ, Galloway SD. Carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism during exercise after oral carnitine supplementation in humans. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008 Dec;18(6):567-84. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.18.6.567. PMID: 19164828.
18. Spiering BA, Kraemer WJ, Hatfield DL, Vingren JL, Fragala MS, Ho JY, Thomas GA, Häkkinen K, Volek JS. Effects of L-carnitine L-tartrate supplementation on muscle oxygenation responses to resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2008 Jul;22(4):1130-5. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31817d48d9. PMID: 18545197.
19. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Carey MF, Hayes A. The effect of whey isolate and resistance training on strength, body composition, and plasma glutamine. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006 Oct;16(5):494-509. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.5.494. PMID: 17240782.
20. Jagim, A.R., Oliver, J.M., Sanchez, A. et al. A buffered form of creatine does not promote greater changes in muscle creatine content, body composition, or training adaptations than creatine monohydrate. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 9, 43 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-9-43
21. Ferguson B. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription 9th Ed. 2014. J Can Chiropr Assoc. 2014 Sep;58(3):328. PMCID: PMC4139760.
22. Kraemer WJ, Spiering BA, Volek JS, Ratamess NA, Sharman MJ, Rubin MR, French DN, Silvestre R, Hatfield DL, Van Heest JL, Vingren JL, Judelson DA, Deschenes MR, Maresh CM. Androgenic responses to resistance exercise: effects of feeding and L-carnitine. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006 Jul;38(7):1288-96. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000227314.85728.35. Erratum in: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006 Oct;38(10):1861. PMID: 16826026.
23. Schmitz SM, Hofheins JE, Lemieux R. Nine weeks of supplementation with a multi-nutrient product augments gains in lean mass, strength, and muscular performance in resistance trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010 Dec 16;7:40. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-40. PMID: 21162744; PMCID: PMC3016253.
24. Erel O. A novel automated direct measurement method for total antioxidant capacity using a new generation, more stable ABTS radical cation. Clin Biochem. 2004 Apr;37(4):277-85. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2003.11.015. PMID: 15003729.
25. Vassalle C, Lubrano V, L'Abbate A, Clerico A. Determination of nitrite plus nitrate and malondialdehyde in human plasma: analytical performance and the effect of smoking and exercise. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2002 Aug;40(8):802-9. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2002.139. PMID: 12392309.
26. Bulucu F, Vural A, Aydin A, Sayal A. Oxidative stress status in adults with nephrotic syndrome. Clin Nephrol. 2000 Mar;53(3):169-73. PMID: 10749294.
27. Berzosa C, Cebrián I, Fuentes-Broto L, Gómez-Trullén E, Piedrafita E, Martínez-Ballarín E, López-Pingarrón L, Reiter RJ, García JJ. Acute exercise increases plasma total antioxidant status and antioxidant enzyme activities in untrained men. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2011; 2011:540458. doi: 10.1155/2011/540458. Epub 2011 Mar 9. PMID: 21436993; PMCID: PMC3062968.
28. Aebi H. Catalase in vitro. Methods Enzymol. 1984; 105:121-6. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(84)05016-3. PMID: 6727660.
29. Arican O, Aral M, Sasmaz S, Ciragil P. Serum levels of TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IL-17, and IL-18 in patients with active psoriasis and correlation with disease severity. Mediators Inflamm. 2005 Oct 24;2005(5):273-9. doi: 10.1155/MI.2005.273. PMID: 16258194; PMCID: PMC1533889.
30. Vecchiet L, Di Lisa F, Pieralisi G, Ripari P, Menabò R, Giamberardino MA, Siliprandi N. Influence of L-carnitine administration on maximal physical exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1990;61(5-6):486-90. doi: 10.1007/BF00236072. PMID: 2127744.
31. Siliprandi N, Di Lisa F, Pieralisi G, Ripari P, Maccari F, Menabo R, Giamberardino MA, Vecchiet L. Metabolic changes induced by maximal exercise in human subjects following L-carnitine administration. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990 Apr 23;1034(1):17-21. doi: 10.1016/0304-4165(90)90147-o. PMID: 2328258.
32. Constantin-Teodosiu D, Carlin JI, Cederblad G, Harris RC, Hultman E. Acetyl group accumulation and pyruvate dehydrogenase activity in human muscle during incremental exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 1991 Dec;143(4):367-72. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716. 1991.tb09247. x. PMID: 1815472.
33. Schooneman MG, Vaz FM, Houten SM, Soeters MR. Acylcarnitines: reflecting or inflicting insulin resistance? Diabetes. 2013 Jan;62(1):1-8. doi: 10.2337/db12-0466. PMID: 23258903; PMCID: PMC3526046.
34. Gönen MS, Kısakol G, Güngör K, and Kaya ODA. The Effect of L-Carnitine Treatment on Lactic Acid Levels in Normal Subjects and Patients with IGT. Turkish Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 1: 13-16, 2005. https://www.turkjem.org/current-issue/the-effect-of-l-carnitine-treatment-on-lactic-acid-levels-in-normal-subjects-and-patients-with-igt-14706
35. Stumpf DA, Parker WD Jr, Angelini C. Carnitine deficiency, organic acidemias, and Reye's syndrome. Neurology. 1985 Jul;35(7):1041-5. doi: 10.1212/wnl.35.7.1041. PMID: 3892364.
36. Williamson JR, Arrigoni-Martelli E. The roles of glucose-induced metabolic hypoxia and imbalances in carnitine metabolism in mediating diabetes-induced vascular dysfunction. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res. 1992;12(5-6):247-52. PMID: 1301405.
37. Bloomer RJ, Tschume LC, Smith WA. Glycine propionyl-L-carnitine modulates lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide in human subjects. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2009 May;79(3):131-41. doi: 10.1024/0300-9831.79.3.131. PMID: 20209464.
38. Lee BJ, Lin JS, Lin YC, Lin PT. Effects of L-carnitine supplementation on oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes activities in patients with coronary artery disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Nutr J. 2014 Aug 4;13:79. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-13-79. PMID: 25092108; PMCID: PMC4125592.
39. Síktar E, Ekinci D, Síktar E, Beydemir S, Gülçin I, Günay M. Protective role of L-carnitine supplementation against exhaustive exercise induced oxidative stress in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2011 Oct 15;668(3):407-13. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.07.032. Epub 2011 Aug 5. PMID: 21839078.
40. Hakim J. Formes réactives de l'oxygène et inflammation [Reactive oxygen species and inflammation]. C R Seances Soc Biol Fil. 1993;187(3):286-95. French. PMID: 8019908.
41. Morgan MJ, Liu ZG. Crosstalk of reactive oxygen species and NF-κB signaling. Cell Res. 2011 Jan;21(1):103-15. doi: 10.1038/cr.2010.178. Epub 2010 Dec 28. PMID: 21187859; PMCID: PMC3193400.
42. Koc A, Ozkan T, Karabay AZ, Sunguroglu A, Aktan F. Effect of L-carnitine on the synthesis of nitric oxide in RAW 264·7 murine macrophage cell line. Cell Biochem Funct. 2011 Dec;29(8):679-85. doi: 10.1002/cbf.1807. Epub 2011 Oct 19. PMID: 22012571.
43. Setia S, Sanyal SN. Nuclear factor kappa B: a pro-inflammatory, transcription factor-mediated signalling pathway in lung carcinogenesis and its inhibition by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2012;31(1):27-37. doi: 10.1615/jenvironpatholtoxicoloncol. v31.i1.40. PMID: 22591282.
44. Cuevas MJ, Almar M, García-Glez JC, García-López D, De Paz JA, Alvear-Ordenes I, González-Gallego J. Changes in oxidative stress markers and NF-kappaB activation induced by sprint exercise. Free Radic Res. 2005 Apr;39(4):431-9. doi: 10.1080/10715760500072149. PMID: 16028368.
45. García-López D, Cuevas MJ, Almar M, Lima E, De Paz JA, González-Gallego J. Effects of eccentric exercise on NF-kappaB activation in blood mononuclear cells. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007 Apr;39(4):653-64. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31802f04f6. PMID: 17414803.
46. Vider J, Laaksonen DE, Kilk A, Atalay M, Lehtmaa J, Zilmer M, Sen CK. Physical exercise induces activation of NF-kappaB in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2001 Dec;3(6):1131-7. doi: 10.1089/152308601317203639. PMID: 11813986.
47. Birben E, Sahiner UM, Sackesen C, Erzurum S, Kalayci O. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense. World Allergy Organ J. 2012 Jan;5(1):9-19. doi: 10.1097/WOX.0b013e3182439613. Epub 2012 Jan 13. PMID: 23268465; PMCID: PMC3488923.
48. Conner EM, Grisham MB. Inflammation, free radicals, and antioxidants. Nutrition. 1996 Apr;12(4):274-7. doi: 10.1016/s0899-9007(96)00000-8. PMID: 8862535.
49. Farruggia C, Kim MB, Bae M, Lee Y, Pham TX, Yang Y, Han MJ, Park YK, Lee JY. Astaxanthin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in macrophages in NRF2-dependent and independent manners. J Nutr Biochem. 2018 Dec;62:202-209. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.09.005. Epub 2018 Sep 19. PMID: 30308382.
50. Kurutas EB, Cetinkaya A, Bulbuloglu E, Kantarceken B. Effects of antioxidant therapy on leukocyte myeloperoxidase and Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase and plasma malondialdehyde levels in experimental colitis. Mediators Inflamm. 2005 Dec 14;2005(6):390-4. doi: 10.1155/MI.2005.390. PMID: 16489261; PMCID: PMC1533903.